... Jewish Learning ...

Five Books of Moses ... Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy (the Pentateuch)
Prophets ... our aspirations of a more humane society free from war, hunger, and oppression.
Writings ... all have left an indelible imprint on the content of Western thought and literature.
The Oral Torah ... here we have the explanations of what is alluded to in the Pentateuch.
Talmudic Works ... popularly called "Shas", the Hebrew acronym for "Shisha Sedarim", the Six Orders.
Post Talmudic Period ... the Geonic period extended from about 690 C.E. until the 11th century.
Exit Links ... this way out ... good and fast ... I know, experiences like this can be frightening.

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Five books of Moses - Chumash

GENESIS - BERESHIS

• Creation, Adam and Eve, Noah and the Flood, the Patriarchs and the Matriarchs, and ends with the descent of Jacob and his family to Egypt.
• The commandment of circumcision, the promise to Abraham that he would receive the Land of Israel and that his descendants would be a blessing to the rest of the world.

EXODUS - SHMOS

• The Hebrew title of this Book refers to the names of the Jews who entered Egypt.
• The exile, the gradual enslavement and suffering. The birth of Moses and his initial prophecies, the ten plagues and the Exodus from Egypt.
• The Revelation at Mt.Sinai, where the Jewish people received the Written and the Oral Torah.
• The building of the Mishkan, a portable Temple which housed the two tablets of stone on which the Ten Commandments were inscribed.

LEVITICUS - VAYIKRA

• G-d calls to Moses and teaches him the laws of the Priests, the Temple, the sacrifices and the Festivals.
• Much of the Jewish code of morality and ethics appears in Vayikra, including the famous statement "Love your neighbor as yourself."

NUMBERS - BAMIDBAR

• The travels, battles and struggles of the Jewish People during their 40 year sojourn in the desert after the Exodus from Egypt.
• Begins with a census of the 12 tribes and describes the formation of their camp.
• The rebellion of Korach, his demise, and the sending of 12 spies into Israel.
• The capture of the East Bank of the Jordan river and the subsequent settlement there of the Tribes of Reuven, Gad and half of Menashe.

DEUTERONOMY - DEVARIM

• Final address of Moses to the Jewish People before his death. This prophetic farewell includes rebuke, encouragement and warnings for their future.
• Commandments that apply only in Israel.
• Commandments that govern the interaction with other nations.
• Moses writes 13 copies of the complete Torah, giving one to each tribe and placing one in the Holy Ark.
• The Five Books of Moses close with the death of "the greatest of all prophets" and "the most humble of all men," Moses.

Prophets - Neviim

JOSHUA - YEHOSHUA

• The first book of the Prophets, Joshua, continues from the death of Moses, with the appointment of Joshua as the new leader of the nation.
• The conquest and subsequent division of the Land of Israel, accounts of the entry into Israel, the wars with the Canaanites and the battle of Jericho.
• Apart from being a great military commander, Joshua was a renowned spiritual leader who composed the prayer "Aleynu Leshabeach," and the 2nd blessing of "Grace after meals."

JUDGES - SHOFTIM

• The Book of Judges details Jewish history following Joshua, up until the era of the first kings.
• The judges ruled the people in civil and criminal law, in matters of Jewish practice, and in military and political affairs.
• Among the numerous judges in the book, we find Gideon, Samson, in his struggle with the Philistines, and Deborah.

SAMUEL - SHMUEL

• Samuel was born in answer to the prayers of his mother, Chana, and served from his youth in the Tabernacle under the High-Priest, Eli, who was the last of the Judges.
• As a prophet, he anointed Saul to be the first King of Israel, and chose David as Saul's replacement when Saul failed to destroy the Amalekites.
• Main themes of the book include: David's slaying of Goliath the Phillistine, David's flight from King Saul, and the rebellion of Absalom against his father, King David.

KINGS - MELACHIM

• King David's son, Solomon, ruled over Israel at a time of peace and prosperity and built the First Temple. After his reign, two of his sons, Jeroboam and Rechoboam, split the country into the Kingdoms of Judea and Israel.
• They were succeeded by other Kings until the destruction of the Temple and the exile to Babylon 410 years later.
• Other main topics include: the prophecies of Elijah and Elishah, and Elijah's challenge to the worshipers of the idol "baal" on Mt. Carmel.

ISAIAH - YESHAYAH

• Isaiah predicted the destruction of the First Temple in vivid detail.
• He is best known for his prophecies of consolation and redemption, which are read as Haftorot on the Sabbaths following the Ninth of Av.
• Isaiah's prophecy includes the well-known verse "They will beat their swords into plowshares... nation shall not raise sword against nation, and they will no longer study war."

JEREMIAH - YIRMIYAHU

• Jeremiah warned of the Temple's destruction and witnessed it. Besides comforting the Jewish people in their exile he also counseled them about behavior in exile and preparation for their imminent return to Israel.
• Jeremiah's prophecy that "the sound of joy and the sound of gladness, the voices of a bride and groom" will again be heard in the "cities of Judah and the streets of Jerusalem" is part of the Jewish wedding ceremony.

EZEKIEL - YECHEZKEL

• Ezekiel lived at the time of the destruction of the First Temple and was exiled together with the Jewish people to Babylon.
• He rebuked the Jewish people for their failings and warned them of the destruction of the Temple - he also gave them hope with his prophecies of the return to Zion and the Messianic age.
• Ezekiel's vision of the "Divine Chariot" serves as a major source text for many Jewish mystical writings.

THE 12 PROPHETS - TREI ASAR

• The "short books" comprising the 12 Prophets are grouped together.
• One of the most famous is Jonah, in which the prophet warns the city of Nineveh of its impending destruction. Eventually the people of Nineveh repented thereby rescinding the decree.
• Malachi closes the books of the Prophets with an exhortation to follow the Torah and with a prophecy about Messianic times when "the hearts of parents will return to their children, and the hearts of children to their parents."

Writings - Kesuvim

PSALMS - TEHILLIM

• "Tehillim" - "praises" - the Hebrew name of Psalms, refers both to the content and purpose of this book.
• King David gives expression to the whole range of human emotion and thought as it relates to G-d.
• He captures through poetry and song the praise of the soul for G-d in all situations, both favorable and unfavorable.
• Much of Jewish liturgy, music and poetry is based on Psalms. They form a central part of the Jewish prayerbook (Siddur) and were sung by the Levites in the Temple.

PROVERBS - MISHLEI

• Proverbs was written by King Solomon and contains his ethical instructions in the form of parables.
• This book forms the basis of many later works of rebuke, ethics and character improvement, known as "Mussar" literature.

JOB - IYOV

• The book of Job recounts the story of the sufferings of a righteous man, Job, and various responses to his suffering.
• Philosophers throughout the centuries have found insights here, into some of the major philosophical problems in religious thought, such as:

THE FIVE MEGILLOT

• The Five Megillos, or "scrolls" are each read on special occasions in the Synagogue:

SONG OF SONGS - SHIR HASHIRIM

• The Song of Songs is described by our Sages as being the most holy of all Prophetic literature.
• King Solomon, the author, presents the love between the Jewish people and G-d in the form of a poetic dialogue between a man and a woman.
• Extensive Midrashic and Rabbinic commentaries elucidate this beautiful work and explain the depth of the allegories used by King Solomon.

RUTH

• During the period of the Judges, a Moabite woman, Ruth, and her Jewish mother-in-law, Naomi, both lost their husbands after having left Israel during a famine.
• Instead of returning to her people, Ruth converted to Judaism, and after marrying Boaz gave birth to a son who was King David's grandfather.
• She embraced Judaism with the famous phrase: "Wherever you go, I will go,... your nation is my nation, and your G-d is my G-d."

LAMENTATIONS - EICHA

• The prophet Jeremiah predicted and witnessed the destruction of the First Temple by the Babylonians.
• In this book he mourns the destruction of the Temple and Jerusalem, the desolation of Israel, and the exile of the Jewish people.
• "Eicha," meaning "How" is the first word of the book:

"How does the city sit solitary, that was full of people! How is she become like a widow! She that was great among the nations, and princess among the provinces, how is she become a vassal."

ECCLESIASTES - KOHELES

• Ecclesiastes was written by King Solomon, who refers to himself here as Koheles, Son of David.
• In this book King Solomon analyzes the futility of a totally materialistic life, and points out the frustrations and the cynicism of one who lives without a spiritual dimension.
• The famous opening statement of Koheles is "Vanity of vanities, said Koheles, vanity of vanities, all is vanity."

ESTHER

• The Scroll of Esther, named for Queen Esther, relates the story behind the celebration of Purim.
• Set in the capital city of Persia, Shushan, in about 350 B.C.E., it details the threat to the Jewish people by Haman's plan of annihilation. The Jews were saved by a miraculous turn of events, precipitated by Mordechai and Queen Esther.
• It is read publicly on Purim and teaches us to give thanks to G-d, and to "give charity to the poor and send presents to our friends."

DANIEL

• Daniel, a Judean youth, of great wisdom and beauty, was captured and taken to Babylon prior to the destruction of the Temple. He was trained to be a servant to the King Nebuchadnezzar.
• There, he laid the foundations of the Torah study for which Babylonian Jewry later became famous.
• Daniel's book is written in Aramaic, the language of Babylon. In it he portrays the various enemies of the Jewish people using the famous metaphor of the four beasts.

EZRA and NEHEMIAH

• The books of Ezra and Nehemiah are usually considered as one book, due to their common author, Ezra, and their common subject matter, the return from captivity in Babylon.
• The return and settlement of the Jewish people in Israel and the building of the Second Temple are described in detail.
• Ezra is well known for instituting the public reading of the Torah on Mondays and Thursdays, in addition to the reading on Shabbat which was introduced by Moses.

CHRONICLES - DIVREI HAYAMIM

• Chronicles is known in Hebrew as "Divrei Hayamim," meaning "the events of the days."
• It details the genealogy of all the major figures in the Tanach, from Adam to Ezra the Scribe.
• Chronicles is also a summary of Jewish history from the beginning of time until the building of the Second Temple.

Concepts in the Oral Tradition

LEGAL EXPLANATIONS AND DEFINITIONS

• Definitions of terms, concepts and descriptions of objects.
• For example: The definition of prohibited work on the Sabbath, the exact appearance of Teffilin, and the times of the beginning and end of the day for legal purposes.
• In short, these traditions provide the knowledge that is necessary to translate the Written Torah into actual practice.

RULES OF EXEGESIS

• There are thirteen basic rules of logic and style that govern the interpretation of the Written Law. They ensure that the Torah is explained in a rational and consistent fashion and in a way that conforms to the grammar and style of Biblical Hebrew.
• These rules, known as the 13 rules of Rabbi Yishmael, are listed in the Introduction to Sifra and provide the basic tools for understanding the Talmud.

ORAL TRADITIONS

• There are non-textual traditions, which are known in Hebrew as "Halachos LeMoshe MiSinai,"or "Laws from Moses at Sinai." These are neither interpretations nor definitions of something in the text of the Written Law. They are laws and practices that were given by G-d to Moses verbally at Mt. Sinai and have since been transmitted from generation to generation.

ETHICS

• Jewish ethics are neither a matter of personal preference or a social contract; rather they are an integral part of both the Written and Oral Laws that were revealed at Sinai, and go hand-in-hand with the Jewish legal code.
• These ethics can be found in a Tractate of the Mishna called "Pirkei Avos," or as it is commonly known, "Ethics of the Fathers" and also throughout the Talmud in the "Aggadata," - the sections dealing with moral issues and homiletics.

 

KABBALAH � MYSTICISM

"Kabbalah," - "tradition" - deals with the relationship of the physical and the spiritual worlds.
The 3 main parts of the Kabbalah are:

1.     Bereshis ... creation ex nihilo, the concept of the infinite G-d creating a finite reality.

2.     Maasei Merkava ... the chariot, divine providence.

3.     T'aamei Hamitzvos ... reasons of the commandments, the rationale of the commandments, and the effect of the physical on the spiritual.

 

SANHEDRIN

• The Great Sanhedrin was the supreme court and legislative body of the Jewish people, as well as being responsible for the accurate transmission of the Oral Law.
• Each town and city, (depending on size) and each of the 12 tribes had its own Sanhedrin, consisting of 23 judges for capital crimes and 3 judges for other matters.
• The Great Sanhedrin consisted of 71 judges and was situated on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem.

Talmudic Works

MISHNA

• The Mishna was redacted by Rabbi Judah the Prince in 170 C.E. in Israel. It is a concise formulation of Jewish law and ethics written in Hebrew containing Biblical, Oral and Rabbinic laws.
• The following are the six orders (Shisha Sedarim or "Shas") of the Mishna:

ZERAIM - SEEDS

• The first tractate (Masechta) of this order is "Berachos" - "blessings" - which teaches the laws of blessings, prayers and the synagogue service.
• The other ten tractates discuss the agricultural laws that apply in the Land of Israel and also those that apply outside of Israel.

MOED - TIMES

• This order deals with the sanctity of time.
• It contains twelve tractates that discuss the Sabbath, Festivals, the High Holidays, the calendar and the fast days.

NASHIM - WOMEN

• This order deals with the sanctity of the male-female relationship.
• Its seven tractates discuss the laws of marriage and divorce, the marriage contract (Ketuva), incest and adultery, vows and their annulment, and levirate marriages (Yibum and Chalitza).

NEZIKIM - DAMAGES

• This order deals with the laws governing a persons possessions. Its nine tractates discuss:
• Damages and torts; lost and abandoned objects; business ethics and laws of trade; property and inheritance; jurisprudence, government and the monarchy; laws of evidence, punishment and oaths; the prohibition of idol worship and relationships with pagans; and the laws of erroneous rulings by a court.

KODSHIM - HOLINESS

• This order deals with the laws of the sacrifices and offerings in the Temple; the laws of redemption of the firstborn; donations to the Temple treasury; and the laws of Kashrut, the Jewish dietary code.
• Kodshim contains eleven tractates.

TAHAROT - PURITY

• Taharot deals with the laws of spiritual purity and impurity (Tumah vetaharah). Its twelve tractates discuss the laws of family purity; impurity caused by death and disease and the various methods of purifying people and objects.
• The laws, structure and purpose of the Mikva are also detailed.

GEMARA - JERUSALEM TALMUD

• The Jerusalem Talmud was redacted in the year 350 C.E. by Rav Muna and Rav Yossi in Israel. It contains explanations of the Mishna, legislation, customs, case histories and moral exhortations.
• The Gemara is a synopsis of the discussions, questions and decisions of the Academies in Israel where the Mishna had been studied for almost 200 years.
• Due to the location of the Academies, the agricultural laws of the Land of Israel are discussed in great detail.

GEMARA - BABYLONIAN TALMUD

• The Babylonian Talmud was redacted in the year 500 C.E., by Ravina and Rav Ashi, two leaders of the Babylonian Jewish community. The language of the Talmud is Aramaic, in Hebrew script.
• It contains explanations of the Mishna, legislation, customs, case histories and moral exhortations.
• The Gemara is a synopsis of the discussions, questions and decisions of the Babylonian Academies in which the Mishna was studied for more than 300 years.

MIDRASH

• The Midrash is a generic term for a group of approximately 60 collections of Rabbinic commentaries, stories, metaphors and ethical essays arranged around the books of the Torah, Prophets and Writings. It includes also various commentaries on the letters of the Hebrew alphabet as well.
• Most of the Midrashim date back to the time of the Mishnah and many authors of the Midrash appear in the Mishnah and vice versa. Many of the central concepts and commentaries of the Midrash are part of the Oral tradition from Sinai.
• The most famous collections of Midrashim are the Midrash Rabba, the Midrash Tanchuma, Yalkut Shimoni, Sifri, Sifra and Mechilta.
• The Maharal of Prague writes, regarding the Midrashim of the Sages that "most of the words of the Sages were in the form of metaphor and the analogies of the wise... unless they state that a particular story is not a metaphor, it should be assumed that it is a metaphor. The matters of great depth were generally expressed by the Sages using metaphors, and should be understood as metaphors unless they are explicitly indicated to be taken literally. And therefore one should not be surprised to find matters in the words of the Sages that appear to be illogical and distant from the mind."
• Rabbi Avraham, son of Maimonides in a famous essay on the Midrash categorizes the midrashim in the following way:

The drashot of the Sages can be divided into five categories:

1.     A drasha meant to be understood according to its simple meaning

2.     A drasha that has both an external and superficial meaning as well as an internal, hidden meaning

3.     A drasha that has no hidden meaning, but whose simple meaning is complex and requires effort and information to understand fully

4.     Drashot that are used to explain a verse without claiming to represent the simple meaning of the words, rather one of many possible ideas that are expressed in the verse. Similar to poetic interpretations, and use of the verse to illustrate or teach a moral idea

5.     Drashos that use hyperbole and exaggeration to make a point

There are four types of stories told by the Sages:

1.     A story from which it is possible to derive legal conclusions.

2.     A story from which can be derived a moral lesson.

3.     A story that teaches an idea in philosophy or in faith.

4.     A story that tells of a wondrous or miraculous event.

 

These stories could be one of three types:

1.     A story that happened in a dream or in a prophetic vision, but that did not actually take place in the physical world.

2.     A story that actually happened but that is related in an exaggerated fashion to emphasis certain ideas.

3.     A story that actually happened, but that is related as a metaphor so that the way in which it is related and every word chosen is not chosen for the accuracy of the story, but to convey the essence of the metaphor.

One should also be aware that a drasha may be a combination of any of these types of drashot or stories.

ZOHAR

• The Zohar was written by the students of Rabbi Shimon bar Yohai, who transcribed his teachings in about 170 C.E. in Israel.
• It discusses the concepts of Creation ex nihilo, Divine Providence and its mechanisms, the metaphysical meaning of the commandments of the Torah and the the connection between the physical and the spiritual.
• Written in Aramaic, it follows the order of the Five Books of Moses. The Zohar is the principle source text of the Kabbalah, the Torah's mystical teachings.

Post-Talmudic Period

GEONIM

• The Geonic period extends from about 690 C.E. until the 11th century.
• The first Geonim or "geniuses" were the heads of the Babylonian academies in which the Mishna was studied and the Gemara written.
• Most of the Geonim lived in Babylon, Egypt and Nth.Africa. They wrote responsa as well as brief commentaries on the Talmud. Included among the Geonim were Rav Hai Gaon, Rav Saadya Gaon and Rav Sherira Gaon.

RISHONIM

• The period of the Rishonim, "the early Sages", starts from about the 11th century C.E. and extends to the 15th century.
• Among the most famous of the Rishonim are:

 

RASHI

• "Rashi" is an acronym for Rabbi Shlomo Yitchaki, a French scholar born in 1040.
• He is one of the most popular and prolific of the Medieval commentators. Rashi wrote commentaries on the Five Books of Moses, the Prophets,the Writings, the Mishna, the Gemara and the Midrash.
• His works are such an essential part of Jewish literature, that the Code of Jewish Law considers it mandatory for every Jew to study the Torah with Rashi's commentary weekly.

 

MAIMONIDES

• Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon, the Rambam, was one of the first codifiers of Jewish law. The foremost intellectual figure of medieval Judaism ... a philosopher, jurist, and physician ... his fourteen volume Mishneh Torah covers all of Jewish law, belief and practice. He was born in Spain in 1135, lived most of his life in Egypt, and died there in 1204.
• His works include the Book of Mitzvos, enumerating all 613 commandments; the Guide for the Perplexed, a complete philosophy of Judaism; and many letters and responsa. He was also a famous physician and wrote many medical treatises.

NACHMANIDES

• Nachmanides, Rabbi Moshe ben Nachman, is also known by his acronym "Ramban." He was born in Spain in 1134, where he lived for most of his life, and died in Israel in 1204, after having immigrated there in his later years.
• Nachmanides wrote commentaries on the Five Books of Moses, the Talmud, and on a number of books of the Tanach. He is considered one of the greatest of the Kabbalists and his commentary on the Torah contains many mystical insights.

ACHARONIM

• The period of the "Acharonim," or the "later Sages," starts from about the 15th Century C.E.. and extends to contemporary times.
• Among the most famous of the Acharonim are: Rav(Rabbi) Yosef Caro and Rav Moshe Isserles, the authors of the Code of Jewish Law; Rav Eliyahu, the Gaon of Vilna; Rav Chaim Soloveichik; Rav Yisrael Meir Kagan, the Chafetz Chaim; and Rav Moshe Feinstein.
• They wrote commentaries on the Talmud and the Written Law, works of philosophy and ethics, and responsa.

CODE OF JEWISH LAW - SHULCHAN ARUCH

• The Code of Jewish Law is known in Hebrew as the "Shulchan Aruch" or the "Set Table."
• It contains in its four sections:

1.     Orach Chaim - the laws of daily practice, Sabbaths and festivals

2.     Yoreh De'ah - the laws of Kashrut

3.     Choshen Mishpat - the laws of business

4.     Even Ha'Ezer - the laws of marriage and divorce

 

• The Shulchan Aruch was written by a Sephardic scholar, Rav Joseph Caro, in Safed in approximately 1560 C.E. It also contains the comments and rulings of Rav Moshe Isserles of Cracow, that include European Jewish custom (Ashkenazic).

 

RESPONSA

• "Responsa" are the responses of Torah scholars to questions of Jewish law posed to them both by laymen and experts.
• These scholars apply the law and philosophy of Judaism to the changing circumstances of Jewish life; to technological and social innovations; to medical issues; and other aspects of contemporary living.
• Responsa literature provides insight into the workings of Jewish law and reveals the concerns of Jews around the world and throughout the ages.

Comments, questions, suggestions, and criticisms are always welcomed.

Now this way to the � Index of Jewish Studies � there is plenty more.

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